The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is an international treaty that serves as the cornerstone of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime. It was negotiated between 1965 and 1968 by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament and was opened for signature on July 1, 1968, entering into force on March 5, 1970. The NPT was created to solve the problem of the potential widespread proliferation of nuclear weapons, which was a growing concern in the 1960s. Its three main objectives, often called the three pillars, are to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of nuclear disarmament.
The treaty works by establishing a "grand bargain" between two groups of states: the five recognized Nuclear-Weapon States (NWS)—those that manufactured and exploded a nuclear device before January 1, 1967 (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States)—and the Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS). Under Article I, NWS pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or assist any NNWS in acquiring them. In return, under Article II, NNWS agree not to receive, manufacture, or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons. Article III obliges NNWS to accept comprehensive safeguards from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that nuclear material is not diverted from peaceful uses to weapons. Article IV affirms the "inalienable right" of all parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and benefit from international cooperation. Crucially, Article VI obligates all parties, especially the NWS, to pursue good-faith negotiations toward nuclear disarmament.
The NPT connects to the IAEA, which acts as the international safeguards inspectorate. It also relates to the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), which controls the export of nuclear-related materials. Originally set for a 25-year duration, the treaty was extended indefinitely by a consensus vote in May 1995. The treaty has not been formally amended since its entry into force, but its operation is reviewed every five years at Review Conferences, as provided for in Article VIII, paragraph 3. Recent Review Conferences, such as the one in 2022, have ended without consensus on a final declaration, highlighting ongoing disagreements, particularly regarding the pace of disarmament under Article VI. India, along with Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan, is not a party to the NPT, viewing it as discriminatory because it legitimizes the nuclear arsenals of the five NWS while preventing others from acquiring them.