Water Resources is a fundamental concept in Indian geography and governance, referring to the natural sources of water that are potentially useful for human purposes, primarily categorized as surface water and groundwater. India, with 16% of the world's population, possesses only about 4% of the world's water resources, making effective management critical.
The history of water management in India is ancient, with sophisticated systems like those in the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BCE) and the construction of dams and canals during the Mauryan Empire (c. 322–185 BCE). The modern framework was shaped by the problem of fragmented control and the need for large-scale irrigation, which led to the construction of extensive canal systems during the colonial era.
The mechanism of control is complex, as water is primarily a State Subject under Entry 17 of the State List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, covering water supplies, irrigation, and storage. However, the Union Parliament has the power to regulate inter-state rivers and river valleys under Entry 56 of the Union List. This dual control is managed through Article 262, which empowers Parliament to adjudicate disputes over inter-state river waters, leading to the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956. Furthermore, the Supreme Court has expanded the scope of Article 21 (Right to Life) to include the right to clean and pollution-free water.
The concept connects to the Ministry of Jal Shakti, formed in 2019, which oversees national schemes like the Jal Jeevan Mission (aimed at providing tap water to every rural household by 2024) and the Atal Bhujal Yojana (for community-led groundwater management). A significant recent change is the shift in policy focus, moving away from a supply-centric approach (like dam construction) to one of demand management and distribution. The National Water Policy (NWP) 2012 introduced the Public Trust Doctrine, treating water as a shared resource. A new draft NWP, submitted in October 2021 by the Mihir Shah Committee, further emphasizes a multidisciplinary approach and community participation, while the constitutional division of powers remains the same.